Illocutions

These particles specify the illocutionary force of an utterance. They tell you whether a sentence is an assertion, a command, a question, and so on.

Illocution markers unambiguously mark the end of a sentence.

Illocution	Default	With
da	assertive	explanatory
ka	performative
moq	interrogative	rhetorical interrogative
ba	optative
nha	promissive
shou	permissive
zay	warning

da is the default illocution. It is implied when no overt illocution marker is present. Its communicative purpose is to mark a sentence as an assertion.

	Gẻo	ní	chảo	da.
	old	the-this	vehicle	ASS
	"This vehicle is old."

If da carries the tone, its meaning is slightly altered to an explanation for something, for example when answering a question like “Why aren’t you working on your project?”:

	Dủı	nủokuaı	jí	dâ.
	too.much	tired	I	ASSexpl
	"It’s [just] that I’m too tired."

If da is left implicit, then, in order to avoid sentence boundary ambiguities, the following sentence has to begin with a sentence connector or with an overt matrix clause complementizer.

	Dảı	hóq.	Keo	bủ	lẻ	hóq	da.
	possible	itIII	but	not	likely	itIII	ASS
	"It’s possible, but it’s not likely."

	Dẻ	súq.	Lả	mảı	jí	súq.
	beautiful	you	C	love	I	you
	"You are beautiful. I love you."

Performative statements with ka are true by virtue of being uttered. Common examples are apologies, greetings, and pronouncements.

	Hỉo	jí	ka.
	greet	I	PER
	"I hereby greet (i.e. Hello)."

	Chẻo	sẻo	súq	ka.
	reciprocal	spouse	you	PER
	"You are hereby husband and wife."

	Kủaq	kỉe	jí	ka.
	express	thankful	I	PER
	"I hereby express my gratitude (i.e. Thank you)."

The interrogative illocution moq is used to form questions. The questions can be polar questions (yes-no questions, i.e. sentences with a mả complementizer):

	Mả	dủa	nháo	rûqshua	moq?
	C[+int]	know	they	that-rain	INT
	"Do they know that it’s raining?"

or wh-questions (sentences with one or more hı in the matrix clause):

	Nỉe	hı	rảı	tíaı	moq?
	inside	which	thing	the-box	INT
	"What’s in the box?"

With the tone, moq turns into a rhetorical question:

	Tảo	jí	hı	rảı	môq?
	do	I	which	thing	INTrhet
	"What am I doing?"

The optative illocution ba expresses wishes, hopes and general purpose imperatives (third-person imperatives).

	Tảı	gáqme	ba.
	succeed	the-team	OPT
	"May (our) team succeed."

	Lảo	tu	pỏq	ba.
	wait	every	person	OPT
	"Everybody wait."

The promissive illocution nha is used for promises and threats:

	Jỉa	tỉ	jí	nha.
	FUT	at	I	PRM
	"(I promise) I’ll be there."

The permissive illocution shou is used to grant permission or make offers:

	Tủı	súq	shou.
	sit	you	PERM
	"Feel free to take a seat."

The zay illocution expresses warnings by providing information the listener should heed.:

	Jỉa	rủqshua	rào	níchaq	zay.
	FUT	rain	P-when	today	ADM
	"(Be aware) it’s going to rain today."

	Ảrane	zay!
	spider	ADM
	"Spider!"